Reasons for Undertaking Foreign Direct Investment by the Multinational Essay

Reasons for Undertaking Foreign Direct Investment by the Multinational Enterprise - Essay Example Unlike the small and medium sized enterprises that only seek to access foreign markets, the major concern of the multinational enterprises is to develop a global manufacturing capacity and improve their proximity to the major world markets (Graham & Spaulding, 2005). The foreign direct investments provide a measure of ownership of domestic productive assets in a given economy by foreign organizations (Economy Watch, 2010a). Classically, foreign direct investment is a situation where ‘a company from one country makes a foreign physical investment by building a factory in another country’ (Graham and Spaulding, 2005). It is an investment in the form of buildings, machinery, and equipment and it is opposed to portfolio investments that are considered indirect investments. Several factors drive firms to expand their operations to cut across different national and regional boundaries. MNEs establish foreign direct investments in response to the changing global and regional co mpetition (Bartels & Crombrugghe, 2009, p.1). Foreign direct investments can be a means of accessing new markets and marketing channels, reduction in costs of production, providing the organization with access to new skills, technologies and other resources, and sources of financing (Graham & Spaulding, 2005). To go global, the firms can decide to make foreign direct investment, and this decision is in turn guided by a number of factors that are considered the potential benefits of the approach. This paper provides a critical evaluation and discussion of some of the major factors that can drive a multinational enterprise to decide to undertake foreign direct investment in efforts to expand its operations and go global. The paper highlights on the benefits of foreign direct investments to the multinational enterprises. Reasons for establishing FDIs to MNEs Foreign Direct Investment has been associated greatly with the current trend that is observed towards globalization and internati onalization of business operations. High growths of the economy and better economic performances in different parts of the world in the recent past can be attributed to the foreign direct investments by the multinational enterprises (Vardar, 2012). Significant growth has been seen in the flows of foreign direct investment especially into the developing countries in the last few decades (Graham & Spaulding, 2005). It becomes one of the drivers of globalization. With the developments that have been seen in the global business operations and global investment patterns, the concept of foreign direct investment has been expanded to include alliances with local companies, foreign mergers and acquisition, or establishment of joint ventures in the foreign markets (a Watch, 2010). The foreign direct investor will seek to have a controlling stake in these investments (ILIKEINVESTING, 2011). Cross-border investments have been in existence as early as the 1950s and different theories have been advanced to explain why the firms decided, and continue to make decisions, to internationalize their operations. In the recent pasts, countries have entered a habit of competition to attract more foreign direct i

Woman and Dinner Party Essay Example for Free

Woman and Dinner Party Essay Many men these think that women don’t know how to stay calm in a situation. They say men know how to control their emotions way more than women do. The short story the Dinner Party by Gardner carries out a message. The message is that women can have just as much control as men can. The story starts off at a fancy dinner party in India at a colonial official’s house. A young woman starts a discussion on how women have overcome the jumping-on-a-chair-at-the-sight-of-a-mouse era. A colonel disagrees with this and says that a woman’s first reaction in a crisis is to scream. He thinks men have more self control than women because even though they make feel like screaming they don’t. An American naturalist was present at the dinner party. He decides to look around the room and notices a strange look come across the hostess face and her muscles contracting. She then whispers to the native boy behind and his widen and brings in a bowl of milk. In India this means bait for a snake. He comes to the conclusion that there is a cobra in the room. He looks around the room but the room looks clear. He knew the snake was under the table and he his first impulse was to jump back and warn the others but he had stayed calm. He then tells the people in the room what they must do. He said he wanted to test the self control that the people had and told them about the snake. The snake does not strike and everything under control. The host speaks up and tells the colonel that he was right and that men have more control. The American asks the hostess how she knew about the snake and she then says â€Å"It was crawling across my foot.† He we can see that the colonel was wrong and that women can have just as much control as men. Mona Gardner carried out the message by showing us the self control of men but also showed us that woman can have the same control and that they have overcome that stereotype.

Galileo, Science, and the Church by Jerome J. Langford Essay -- Galile

Galileo, Science, and the Church by Jerome J. Langford   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Science and the church, two things that you would not ordinarily think would go together until until Galileo came along. Galileo, a man that stuck his head out to the world, but especially to the church, when maybe he should have done things a little differently. This particular book shows many accounts of the troubles between Galileo and the church, and with other bystanders. The book goes through the ups and downs of Galileo and the church, the hardships, and friendships that people held, and how hard it was to keep those friendships during the days of Galileo. The book reveals many alliances, and loyalties, but also it also reveals distrust, and clouded minds, of both Galileo and the church.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Throughout the book you learn the different approaches of scientific belief. There was of course the Aristotelian way of the universe, and there was also the Ptolemaic way. The differences between these two were not too major, they both believed the Earth did not move. There was a new system in the works the Copernican theory, which believed that the Earth was not the center and was mobile, but the sun was the center. Copernicus did not get to back his theory the way he would have wanted but Galileo assumed the ropes and brought it to the full front.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Galileo had many problems trying to introduce the Copernican theory to be relevant. Scripture from the Holy Bible was one problem that Galileo had to face. Ca...

hemingway Essay -- essays research papers

Ernest Hemingway was an American writer. He was born in 1899 in Oak Park, Illinois. He committed suicide in 1961 in Ketchum, Idaho (Burges 17). Even today Hemingway is one of the most recognized authors in the world. Hemingway’s experiences during World War I are directly shown in many of his works. His general outlook on life is reflected in the adventures of his characters. It is clear that Hemingway had a desire to be part of the war even though, due to bad vision he was unable to enlist in the army and fight in the war. Instead he lied about his age and went to Italy to become an ambulance driver. While in Italy he experienced many things that he would later go on to write about in works such as A Farewell to Arms and For Whom the Bells Toll. Ernest Miller Hemingway was born on July 21st, 1899 in Oak Park, IL. He was the second of six children born to Grace Hall Hemingway, an aspiring opera singer, who gave up a career for marriage and six children. His father, Clarence Edmunds Hemingway, was a family physician and avid outdoorsmen. Clarence shared his love for the outdoors with his young son, Ernest, who found a liking for the outdoors from a young age. His first trip to the great outdoors was when he was just six weeks old. The Hemingway family and Ernest’s nurse went to Lake Walloon in upper Michigan each summer. Perhaps it was this early exposure to nature that fostered Hemingway’s sense of adventure (Baker 45). During Hemingway’s sixty- two years he was married four times. First to Elizabeth Hadley Richardson on September 3,1921. During their six-year marriage they lived in Paris, where Ernest was a war correspondent for the Toronto Star. Elizabeth’s trust fund made their life much easier. Their marriage ended in 1927. Shortly after his divorce from Hadley, Hemingway married Pauline Pfeiffer. He and Pfeiffer lived in Key West for the majority of their marriage. In 1940 Hemingway would marry fellow war correspondent Martha Ellis Greenhorn. This would be his shortest marriage, lasting only five years. His final marriage was on March, 14, 1946 to Mary Welsh Monks They were married for fourteen years, during which they lived at Hemingway’s Lookout Farm in San Francisco de Paula, Cuba (Hemingway 34). When the call went out that ambulance drivers for the war were needed, Hemingway, a recent high school graduate volunteered immediately. He said â€Å" I wante... ...est I can write ever for all of my life. It will destroy the criticism that claims I can write about notheing except myself and my own experiences.†(Baker 67) The story he would write was eventually called The Old Man and The Sea. This was a story that he had been thinking about since he first heard it in 1935. It is the story of an old Cuban fisherman who fought a swordfish for four days and nights only to lose it to sharks. It was first published as a story called â€Å"On The Blue Water† in Esquire. Then it became the novella, The Old Man and The Sea. It was published in Life and was a Book-of-the Month selection (Baker 174). At this point his celebrity really took off but his personal life seemed to come apart. Hemingway achieved many great things in his life such as being honored with the Nobel prize for literature and being recognized in the media as the first American wounded in Italy. He was a lonely and unhappy man. His wife and mother had died and he was in ill health. In July of 1961 he took his own life with a shotgun blast to his head (Hemingway 165). Hemingway was one of the most influential writers of the twentieth century whose stories and legacy will always live on.

Integrity Issues in the Criminal Justice for Probation Officers Essay

When becoming a Probation Officer there are requirements of guide lines that must be followed in order to remain with great integrity and honesty. These requirements are as followed; 1)Purpose (conducting professional and ethical standards and perform their duties with diligence and honesty. 2)Policy ( partnership developed with the community, respect and confidence in our ability to protect the public, and supervise offenders at a level of security commensurate with the danger they represent. 3)Scope (conducting one self on or off duty) which this policy is organized into eight principles. The three issues that I feel could compromise one’s credibility are; 1) not following the law of conduct on or off duty, 2) over achieving their power that they are authorized to use and 3) not being courteous and respecting the offenders. In order to keep these issues from becoming a pitfall into a probation officers profession is when he or she is off duty they need to keep their personal life personal because they are entitled to a personal life. It is how they conduct themselves when in the public. Example: Sally June is invited to a house party at Cheryl’s house once Sally arrive there she know what her profession is and the people that are going to be there is the public. She must conduct herself in a professional manner and be able to make professional decisions knowing that there will be alcohol beverages at this party. Therefore she should not be refrained from having a drive but should know how much to drink and how to carry herself after the drink in order to keep her integrity with the public. People know that you have a professional job and see you in the public drunk or intoxicated they loose all respect for you. Another issue that could be changed is the attitude that some probation officers show toward the offenders that they are responsible for. They should give them the same respect that they are seeking from that offender because no one like to be talked to any kind of way that creates the offender to acquire an attitude issue with the probation officer. Some probation officers take advantage of their power that they loose all respect from the offender, their co-workers, and the offender’s families. There should be continuous education or training on how to conduct yourself when working with any other people. REFERENCES http://www.fdle.state.fl.us/Content/CJST/Menu/Officer-requirements-Main-Page/CPO-Et†¦

10 Varieties of Syntax to Improve Your Writing

10 Varieties of Syntax to Improve Your Writing 10 Varieties of Syntax to Improve Your Writing 10 Varieties of Syntax to Improve Your Writing By Mark Nichol English is a remarkably flexible language in terms of syntax, because a simple statement can be rendered in so many ways. Take, for example, the statement â€Å"I went for a walk,† and consider all the ways you can attach the additional information included in the statement, â€Å"I saw a dinosaur.† Here are just some of the most basic of many variations in syntactical organization: 1. Write the statements as consecutive sentences: â€Å"I went for a walk. I saw a dinosaur.† 2. Add the second statement to the first as a dependent clause: â€Å"I went for a walk and saw a dinosaur.† (The second statement does not stand on its own.) 3. Add the second statement to the first as an independent clause: â€Å"I went for a walk, and I saw a dinosaur.† (The second statement stands on its own, which means it can be separated into two sentences, as in the first example.) 4. Begin the sentence with a dependent marker that turns the initial statement into a modifying phrase that expands on the second statement: â€Å"While I was walking, I saw a dinosaur.† 5. Begin with the second statement and reword the first statement as a modifying phrase that follows it: â€Å"I saw a dinosaur on my walk this morning.† 6. Insert a nonessential phrase, which must be bracketed by commas, one of two ways: Locate the phrase between a pair of independent clauses (but after the coordinating conjunction), each consisting of one of the two statements: â€Å"I went for a walk and, to my surprise, I saw a dinosaur.† (Notice that â€Å"to my surprise,† which can be omitted without altering the sentence’s meaning, modifies the second statement and so must follow and; note, too, that the comma preceding the coordinating conjunction can be omitted.) Or, separate two statements with a nonessential phrase inserted before the coordinating conjunction: â€Å"I went for a walk, following my usual route, and I saw a dinosaur.† (Notice that â€Å"following my usual route,† which also does not alter the sentence’s meaning if it is omitted, modifies the first statement and so must precede and.) 7. Emphasize a nonessential phrase by bracketing it with em dashes to indicate an interruption of thought: â€Å"I went for a walk and no, I was not hallucinating I saw a dinosaur.† (Alternatively, to deemphasize the phrase, or for humorous effect, enclose it in parentheses.) 8. Insert an essential clause one whose absence would alter the meaning the sentence between two statements: â€Å"I went for a walk that followed my usual route and saw a dinosaur.† 9. Attach a variation of the second statement to the first, preceded by a semicolon when the second statement is an independent clause that is nevertheless closely associated with the first one: â€Å"I went for a walk; a dinosaur was grazing along my route.† 10. Separate two statements with a semicolon when the second statement is preceded by an adverb or an adverbial phrase, which requires a subsequent comma: â€Å"I went for a walk; unexpectedly, I saw a dinosaur along the way.† It is this rich variety of word and phrase order and variation in punctuation that makes prose fiction or nonfiction readable. As you review your writing, make sure that you vary sentence structure among these and other constructions to create a pleasant reading experience devoid of lockstep syntax questionable enough for a Dick-and-Jane reading level, and deadly for more sophisticated readers. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Grammar category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Definitely use "the" or "a"Latin Plural Endings48 Writing Prompts for Middle School Kids

Dr. Martin Luther King Essay Example

Dr. Martin Luther King Essay Example Dr. Martin Luther King Essay Dr. Martin Luther King Essay A man who is not willing to die for something, Is not fit to live ~ Martin Luther King Jr. The person that I admire is a man that we all cherish and celebrate every year in his honor. He was an American Clergyman, Nobel Peace Prize winner, and quite possibly is the most influential leader in all of American history. That man is the great, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Growing up, Dr.King knew his ancestors’ history and how Africans got to America. He knew that African slaves where captured and brought to America by rows and rows of Africans stuffed into slave ships like sardines, Then sold into slavery and sold to the Whiteman. Although this happened centuries before Dr. King’s time oppression still lived strongly in America. The thing that was truly inspiring was the even though young Dr. King knew this, he found a way to look past those times of extreme racism and slavery, to see a brighter future.A future much like today, free of racial segregation and equality for all races. Martin Luther King Jr. was born Atlanta, GA on Jan. 15, 1929. Atlanta was one of the cities that suffered the most racism out of the whole south. From major segregation, to the KKK’s infamous cross burnings and lynchings, Atlanta had it all. The reason for this is because one of the KKK’s main headquarters in Atlanta. Even though Dr. King was surrounded by racism, that never stopped him from pushing forward and dreaming of a better tomorrow.That to me is very admirable alone. Martin Luther King Jr. ’s father was a great influence in his life. Dr. King’s father, Martin Luther King Sr. , was also a civil rights activist and worked with a group of anti-racial leaders in there community. Dr. King used to talk about how influential his father was on his life and political upbringing, and how he used to admire his father greatly for what he did for trying to make their community and lives safer. Around the age of 17 Dr.King decided that he wanted to contribute his life into doing the same thing his father had done before him, Fight the battle of racism†¦ using only methods of peace. That shows me that you can solve some enormous problems using only your mind and peace, instead of weapons and war. In the year of 1995, he was asked to lead a bus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama after a black woman by the name of Rosa Parks, was arrested on account of not giving up her bus seat to a white man and move to the back.The boycott lasted 381 days while Dr. King was leading march after march for liberty and equality. The white community did not let Dr. King do this easily though. Dr. King was terrorized, threatened and put down, in on occasion his house was bombed! But that did not stop King from moving forward and pushing to a brighter future for all. He risked his live and jeopardized the well being of his family to push for equality for all. He was willing to die, in pursuit of equality for all†¦ which he did. In 1963 Martin Luther King Jr. as shot in the chest on the balcony of a motel while on his I Have a Dream speech tour. Even when he was killed he was still working on spreading the word of equality and an anti-racial society for all walks of earth. Not just African-Americans. Nothing could stop Dr. King from pursuing his dream, the American dream, across the country while informing the minds and touching the hearts of the people who heard him speak. That is something that I admire greatly and believe in. That is why I think the most influential figure in my life is Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.

Spiny Lobster (Rock Lobster) Facts

Spiny Lobster (Rock Lobster) Facts A spiny lobster is any lobster in the family Palinuridae, which includes at least 60 species. These species are grouped into 12 genera, which include Palinurus, Panulirus, Linuparus, and Nupalirus (word play on the family name). There are numerous names for the spiny lobster. Commonly-used names include the rock lobster, langouste, or langusta. It is also sometimes called a crayfish or crawfish, even though these terms also refer to a separate freshwater animal. Fast Facts: Spiny Lobster Scientific Name: Family Palinuridae (e.g. Panulirus interruptus)Other Names: Rock lobster, langouste, langusta, sea crayfish, furry lobsterDistinguishing Features: Shaped like a true lobster, but has long, spiny antennae and lacks large clawsAverage Size: 60 cm (24 in)Diet: OmnivorousLife Span: 50 years or moreHabitat: Tropical oceans worldwideConservation Status: Depends on speciesKingdom: AnimaliaPhylum: ArthropodaSubphylum: CrustaceaClass: MalacostracaOrder: DecapodaFun Fact: Spiny lobsters make a rasping sound using friction at the base of their antennae. Description The spiny lobster resembles a true lobster in its shape and hard exoskeleton, but the two types of crustacean arent closely related. Unlike true lobsters, spiny lobsters have extremely long, thick, spiny antennae. They also lack large claws or chelae, although mature female spiny lobsters have a small claw on their fifth pair of walking legs. The average size of a mature spiny lobster depends on its species, but they may exceed 60 centimeters or 2 feet in length. Specimens of many spiny lobster species are red or brown, but some spiny lobsters have mottled patterns and display vivid colors. Some species of spiny lobster are colorful. DigiPub / Getty Images Distribution Spiny lobsters live in tropical oceans worldwide. However, they are most commonly found in the Caribbean and Mediterranean, in coastal waters off Southeast Asia and Australia, and off the coast of South Africa. Behavior The spiny lobster spends most of its time hidden within a rocky crevice or reef, exiting at night to feed and migrate. During migration, groups of up to 50 spin lobsters move in single file, keeping contact with each other with their antennae. They navigate using scent and taste, as well as through their ability to detect the Earths magnetic field. Reproduction and Life Cycle Spiny lobsters reach sexual maturity when they reach the necessary size, which depends on water temperature and food availability. The average age of maturity is between 5 and 9 years for females and 3 and 6 years for males. During mating, males transfer spermatophores directly into the females sternum. The female spiny lobster carries 120,000 to 680,000 fertilized eggs on her pleopods for around 10 weeks until they hatch. Juvenile painted spiny lobster. Hal Beral / Getty Images Spiny lobster larvae are zooplankton that do not resemble adults. The larvae feed on plankton and go through several molts and larval stages. In the case of the California spiny lobster, 10 molts and larval stages take place between hatching and reaching the juvenile form. Juveniles sink to the bottom of the ocean, where they eat small crabs, amphipods, and isopods until they are big enough to take larger prey. It is difficult to gauge the age of a spiny lobster because it gains a new exoskeleton each time it molts, but the animals lifespan is believed to be 50 years or more. Diet and Predators Spiny lobsters are omnivorous, eating live prey, decaying matter, and plants. During the day, they stay hidden in crevices, but at night they may venture from crevices to hunt. Typical prey include sea urchins, snails, crabs, sea hares, mussels, and clams. Spiny lobsters have not been observed eating other members of their own species. The crustaceans navigate and hunt using senses of smell and taste. Humans are the spiny lobsters most significant predator, as the animals are fished for meat. The spiny lobsters natural predators include sea otters, octopuses, sharks, and bony fishes. Sound When threatened by a predator, the spiny lobster flexes its tail to escape backwards and emits a loud rasping sound. The sound is produced using a stick-slip method, like a violin. The sound emanates when the base of the antennae rubs across a file on the antennal plate. Interestingly, the spiny lobster can make this sound even after it molts and its shell is soft. While some insects (e.g. grasshoppers and crickets) produce sounds in a similar fashion, the spiny lobsters specific method is unique. Conservation Status For most spiny lobster species, there is is insufficient data for conservation status classification. Of the species listed on the IUCN Red List, most are categorized as least concern. However, the common spiny lobster (Palinurus elephas) is vulnerable with a decreasing population. The Cape Verde spiny lobster (Palinurus charlestoni) is near threatened. The most significant threat to spiny lobsters is over-exploitation by fisheries. Climate change and single catastrophic events also threaten some species, particularly if they live within a restricted range. Sources Hayward, P. J. and J. S. Ryland (1996). Handbook of the Marine Fauna of North-West Europe. Oxford University Press. p. 430. ISBN 0-19-854055-8.Lipcius, R. N. and D. B. Eggleston (2000). Introduction: Ecology and fishery biology of spiny lobsters. In Bruce F. Phillips J. Kittaka. Spiny Lobsters: Fisheries and Culture (2nd ed.). John Wiley Sons. pp. 1–42. ISBN 978-0-85238-264-6.Patek, S. N. and J. E. Baio (2007). The acoustic mechanics of stick-slip friction in the California spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus). Journal of Experimental Biology. 210 (20): 3538–3546. doi:10.1242/jeb.009084Sims, Harold W. Jr. (1965). Lets call the spiny lobster spiny lobster. Crustaceana. 8 (1): 109–110. doi:10.1163/156854065X00613

Case Study 1 - international marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Case Study 1 - international marketing - Essay Example They then seek out characteristics, such as prestige-oriented attitudes or general lifestyle, and then develop advertising and integrated communications strategies to meet these needs. It is segmentation and then response to market identification using language that would be accepted by these groups. Divide and conquer segments â€Å"must be revisited to ensure relevance† (Schwarz, 2007, p.1). Question 2 This paradox fits into Acer’s strategy as it is recognized that global markets are products and local markets are people. There is no standardized method of achieving marketing success due to the fact that people across the globe, even if they have similar demographic traits, will not have the same buying behaviors. Businesses that believe they can use standardized advertising and communications principles are engaging in paradoxical thinking (sagepub.com, 2007). Local markets can be easier identified with and segmented while global markets are more difficult to define. Acer spent a great deal of time learning Chinese buyer behaviors, such as feelings about product reputation, that helped standardize segmentation and ad strategies in this specific culture. Globally, however, Acer must adapt these principles to meet unique market needs.

Water and Sustainability Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Water and Sustainability - Term Paper Example Extensive research focusing and elaborating the significance and need of the freshwater bodies have expanded considerably during the past decade, although such critical information and knowledge gained has not been integrated so far, for the development of an efficient water management framework. However certain countries and regions such as North America, Chile, South Africa, the E.U. and Australia among others are an exception to this general rule, since these regions have witnessed the successful establishment of appropriate policies and approaches aimed at preventing the deterioration of freshwater and protecting the environment from further damage. In the face of adversities, and innumerable setbacks in the form of political and socio-economic measures, these policies are indicative of a struggle at the international level, to ensure better management of water together with the protection of the priceless ecosystems. Many water experts in the U.S. and other countries have argued that water markets, tradable water rights, and related economic approaches are important policy tools for improving the long-term sustainability of water uses and ecosystems. Water in existing times, has become an extremely rare and hence precious commodity, which supports the basic survival and sanitation needs of billions of people across the globe. The current issues related to environmental degradation which has taken a toll on global water bodies, has confronted the human population with strategic issues related essential for the sustenance of life on earth.

Communication paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Communication paper - Essay Example In the conversation, the sender was my friend who sent a message to me by directly asking me my plans for the weekend. The question was clearly transmitted to me by my friend to which I responded positively. It was apparent that I am the receiver of the message and transmission was immediately achieved since I answered my friend with choices of places that we can visit. I also suggested some things that we can do like watch a movie or just play games in my room. In a way, there was noise between the message since I was excited by the fact that my friend is back so anything is possible. My friend’s message was clearly transmitted because that is also what I had in mind. Using the linear communication model, the conversation was successful because both parties were very optimistic and looked forward to the topic. If I were to analyze the conversation using simultaneous transactional model, it can be said that I was able to give a positive feedback, the message was decoded very well. I know that my friend has the best intention why he invited me so I relied on that belief. Even before my friend my called me up, I was already anticipating some invitation from this person. The conversation seemed very simple indeed but there lies many important lessons in communication. First of all, messages are can be easily decoded by the receiver when the person receiving the message feels positive about the sender. Since the message was transmitted by a close friend whom I trust, it was not hard to send a good feedback. Of course, this is not applicable in all times since noise can also be an obstacle in decoding the message. I could be experiencing some problems that my friend doesn’t know which can elicit a cold response. Probably, I could be feeling ill at that time and would not want to displeas e my friend so I just accepted the idea. No matter what the case maybe, there is another important lesson in communication

The Legal Perspective based on the film inside job Essay

The Legal Perspective based on the film inside job - Essay Example One legal aspect that was clearly brought out in the movie is the issue of fiduciary duty. Fiduciary duty is a legal obligation that one party, in this case, referred to as the fiduciary, act solely on another party’s called, the principal, interests. In the Inside Job, the representatives of Goldman Sachs violated this fiduciary duty by selling collateralized debt obligations (CDOs) that were of doubted quality to their clients (Ferguson and Beck, 2010). The selling of these collateralized debt obligations to client meant that the financial institutions dealing with them was transferring the repayment risks to investors and other clients who purchased them. According to Ferguson and Beck (2010), the financial institutions dealing with these collateral debts obligations won’t be affected in case the collateral debts obligation market collapsed. The borrowers’ credit worthiness did not mean a thing to the financial institutions that lend out collateral debt obligations. Since the investment banks knew of the impending risks in dealing with the collateral debt obligations, they had to part with hundreds of millions to credit rating firms such as Fitch, Moody’s and S&P in order for them to give the credits triple-A credit ratings. However, these rating firms when confronted about their rating, they said that those were only opinions and no one was to rely on them. From these strategies of selling risky collateral debt obligations during the financial downturn, some financial institutions ended up gaining and making millions from these situations. These include the Morgan Stanley and the Goldman Sachs. Fiduciary duties from the above issues in the Inside Job have been breached. The fiduciary duties involve different elements. These include first acting in utmost good faith. The second element is to put the client’s interests first in all actions. The next element was to put all material and

Team Leadership and Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Team Leadership and Management - Essay Example 33). The solutions and strategies proposed by the authors are really practical in today's multinational organizations. Different tasks make a degree of different contributions to the team's various functions in production, support, and well-being. Although technological changes are usually aimed at modifying the team's production function, they almost always have profound effects on the team well-being and member support functions as well. The sharing among team members of both access to the hardware portions of the new technology and of the expertise needed to use and understand the new systems may provide brand new range of the distribution of status and power within a team, dimensions that compare quite poorly with the prior status structure. In terms of underlying social-exchange dynamics, the principal rewards and costs concern task achievement or success. In modern multi-national companies the affective or emotional factor of teamwork is important to all relationships. It is le ss so in task-based, personal relationships than in purely social roles. Team-based approach plays a much important role in the development of team relations than it does in organizations in general (Northhouse, 2003). I agree with the authors that teamwork should be flexible and fit with environmental changes. I would add communication as one of the most important elements in teamwork. The major reason Critique: Team LED 501 for past success is open communication policy and the ability to get people to work together as team. A team leader sees themselves having an informative meeting with employees. They should emphasize open door policy and encourage employees to use it. The task of the team leader is to inform team members that they would like to have some formal meetings for brainstorming and troubleshooting purposes and some informal meetings just as an excuse to get together. Virtually, members of a multi-national workforce behave the same way as traditional teams but pay more attention to interpersonal communication and interaction. In a virtual or practical environment, working relationships vary in their empathy or understanding, effectiveness, and power. The results of ineffective communication range from minor embarrassment to critical problems. Minor embarrassment occurs when we show up at a friend's house for a party on the wrong night; a critical problem occurs. As a human resource professional, one of leaders' responsibilities is to develop and improve the communication process in organization. The authors explain how effective teamwork or group effort can enhance the communication process. The authors do not pay attention to problems and conflicts take place in virtual environment. The communication process is rich with imagery and descriptions. Words and other forms of communication are symbols that bring to mind mental images. In fact, communi cations is basically the management of symbols or language. It is through use of these mental images that we communicate and convey relationships and promote understanding that generates the necessary action to accomplish organizational goals and objectives. These ideas might be supported by the Bible saying: "And do not forget to do

The Legal Perspective based on the film inside job Essay

The Legal Perspective based on the film inside job - Essay Example One legal aspect that was clearly brought out in the movie is the issue of fiduciary duty. Fiduciary duty is a legal obligation that one party, in this case, referred to as the fiduciary, act solely on another party’s called, the principal, interests. In the Inside Job, the representatives of Goldman Sachs violated this fiduciary duty by selling collateralized debt obligations (CDOs) that were of doubted quality to their clients (Ferguson and Beck, 2010). The selling of these collateralized debt obligations to client meant that the financial institutions dealing with them was transferring the repayment risks to investors and other clients who purchased them. According to Ferguson and Beck (2010), the financial institutions dealing with these collateral debts obligations won’t be affected in case the collateral debts obligation market collapsed. The borrowers’ credit worthiness did not mean a thing to the financial institutions that lend out collateral debt obligations. Since the investment banks knew of the impending risks in dealing with the collateral debt obligations, they had to part with hundreds of millions to credit rating firms such as Fitch, Moody’s and S&P in order for them to give the credits triple-A credit ratings. However, these rating firms when confronted about their rating, they said that those were only opinions and no one was to rely on them. From these strategies of selling risky collateral debt obligations during the financial downturn, some financial institutions ended up gaining and making millions from these situations. These include the Morgan Stanley and the Goldman Sachs. Fiduciary duties from the above issues in the Inside Job have been breached. The fiduciary duties involve different elements. These include first acting in utmost good faith. The second element is to put the client’s interests first in all actions. The next element was to put all material and

Corporate Strategy of Halifax and the Bank of Scotland Essay

Corporate Strategy of Halifax and the Bank of Scotland - Essay Example From a building society with a long history of lending to local working people who build their homes, Halifax demutualized in 1997 officially becoming Halifax plc. Shortly before, it merged with the Leeds Permanent Building Society and acquired Clerical Medical Fund Managers, a British life insurance company. When Halifax was listed at the London Stock Exchange in June 1997, more than 7.5 million customers became stockholders of the new bank, and it became the fifth largest company in the UK in terms of market capitalization. The new publicly-listed company continued to expand its consumer base with the acquisition of Birmingham Midshires Building Society in 1999. The Bank of Scotland (BoS) has been one of the two largest banks in Scotland, in competition primarily with the Royal Bank of Scotland. It is considered the oldest surviving bank in the UK. Prior to merging with Halifax in 2001, the BoS had little presence in Wales and England. Its strength was limited in the corporate and business sectors. Prior to the 2001 merger with Halifax, its strategy of trying to reach out to markets outside the UK and to establish a retail or mass consumer presence was at times, erratic. Riding the spate of consolidation and mergers in the late 1990s, the BoS made a bold move to take over National Westminster Bank (NatWest), a much larger bank in from late 1999 to early 2000, but was defeated in the final bid by the Royal Bank of Scotland. The BoS also made forays into the markets outside UK - establishing a presence in Australia, with its purchase of Perth-based Bank of Western Australia, in addition to its presence in the United States, Moscow and Singapo re. It however sold its New Zealand bank asset, the Countrywide Bank of New Zealand to Lloyds TBS in 1998. The Bank of Scotland's attempt to establish a wide presence in retail banking in the United States was characterized by controversy. The deal with Christian preacher Pat Robertson folded after the evangelist's racist and sexist comments about Scotland were scored by civil rights groups. In 2001, the 10.8 billion-pound merger between Halifax and the Bank of Scotland, resulting in Halifax Bank of Scotland (HBOS) was called by the company executives as "the new force in banking" (Burt & Crosby n.y.). As a result, HBOS has now 22 million customers across the UK or two out of five households. Halifax, the consumer champion brought into the table, financial strength and scale, new products and channels and innovation. The Bank of Scotland, the old hand at commercial lending, allowed Halifax shareholders to fulfill its diversification strategies, and offered its lending capability and culture, opportunities in the small-and-medium and corporate markets, enhanced retail opportunities and partnership expertise. The strategic directives of the new company rested in its business balance (retail and commercial lending), leading brands (18 in all), market power (UK's number four financial service company) and management strength. Two strategies underpin HBOS drive to become UK' s fastest growing financial services company: one is through diversification of its services across all markets, and two, offering low rates and fees to ramp up volumes and to further achieve competitive pricing. The diversified strategy of the newly formed HBOS was reflected in five main banking divisions:

Explain How Each Sector of Industry Essay Example for Free

Explain How Each Sector of Industry Essay Explain how each sector of industry is linked together within a supply chain? In todays world, supply chain management (SCM) is a key strategic factor for increasing organizational effectiveness and for better realization of organizational goals such as enhanced competitiveness, better customer care and increased profitability. Today, most of the enterprises of a supply chain operate independently. For example, marketing, distribution, production planning, manufacturing, and the purchasing organizations have their own objectives and these objectives are often conflicting. This way of functioning prevents the enterprises from providing the right products to the right customers at the right time. All these organizations are individually efficient enterprises, but they lack coordination to produce required end results. A supply chain can be described as a network of retailers, distributors, transporters, storage facilities, and suppliers that participate in the production, delivery, and sale of a product to the consumer. The supply chain is typically made up of multiple companies who coordinate activities to set themselves apart from the competition. Supply chains are all about linkages. A supply chain is only as strong as its weakest link. Whenever a chain breaks, it usually does at the weakest link. In a supply chain there are many interfaces (links), and problems develop at these interfaces. The best way to overcome these problems is to, manage the supply chain efficiently. This helps the organizations to act and not react to the unexpected changes in the market situations. In the case of IKEA, the supply chain involves a flow of production and processes through each of the three industrial sectors: primary, secondary and tertiary. Specifically, the various stages of the process are raw materials in the primary stage, manufacturing in the secondary stage, distribution and retailing services in the tertiary stage. In the primary stage, IKEA works closely with its primary sector suppliers to ensure that it is receiving sustainable and environmentally friendly raw materials. IKEA designs its own products and throughout this process makes sure that the impact on the environment is minimised. The firm uses a tool called the â€Å"e-wheel† to measure the environmental impact of products. This looks at resources, production, use and recycling for each product. Around half of IKEA? s products are made of wood. This is a good source of material as it is recyclable and renewable. Other production processes which help support sustainability include tables made from recycled plastic, rugs made from off-cuts, products made to stack for more efficient transportation. IKEA works with suppliers to reduce waste or use waste products in further manufacture. To help it has a Code of Conduct called the IKEA Way (IWAY). In the secondary stage, IKEA creates its products from raw materials. During this stage, IKEA also created added value for its products with the utilization of the smallest amount of resources. The IWAY Code also helps manufacturers by making sure that they apply sustainable principles. It also insists that they follow laws, health and safety requirements and do not employ child labour. It states that materials from non-sustainable sources should not be used. The Code raises standards for all concerned. IKEA also works with other organisations to support the Code. These include children’s charity UNICEF and the World Wildlife Fund. In the tertiary stage, IKEA does not use raw materials nor create its products. IKEA’s retail stores add value to manufactured goods by providing a form of shopping different to the usual high-street experience. IKEA has more than 260 shops in 36 countries set up to provide a retail experience that meets consumer needs. Stores are large and customers can pick their own purchases. Further services are provided through the IKEA catalogue and home delivery. IKEA also has set up initiatives to support sustainability within the company by aiming to recycle up to 90% of its waste, removing carrier bags from its stores, subsidising public transport and encouraging cycling (with a new bike given to each employee), giving low-energy light bulbs for employees, using only hybrid vehicles as company cars. Within a supply chain, every sector must be well connected. It means that the upstream and the downstream can not be separated in order to meet the market demand in any situation. The three sectors mentioned earlier within IKEA supply chain are well connected. IKEA uses excellent supply chain concepts, reducing and eliminating wastes at every stage and hence can offer good value to customers. The IKEA’s supply chain is a complete process that can match together the suppliers, the manufacturer and the customers. With the support of the primary sector, IKEA can sustainably produce high quality products and sufficient quantities to meet the market demand at the lowest cost. The tertiary sector helps IKEA go further to create added value for customers, bringing about a close and sustainable relationship with the customers. IKEA’s supply chain strategy to connect the three sectors closely proves that it aims to act out and become a global giant in the industry.

Integrity Ethics And Core Values Commerce Essay

Integrity Ethics And Core Values Commerce Essay Company Secretaries represents the interests of all stakeholders of the company. It is the company secretary who leads the company. Todays business environment is a combination of legal practices, ethics and integrity and best management practices. Company secretaries coordinates the management functions and company policies, keeps an eye on ethics and mutual trust, helps in strategic decisions and aligning the company towards excellence. Integrity, ethics and core values are the most important elements of a business. Every business should have integrity, ethics and core values. Todays business environment includes many frauds and unfair trade practices. This is often happens due to the lack of integrity, ethics and core values. In this article the need for integrity ethics and core values are critically analysed and a brief study has been made. Integrity  is a concept of  consistency  of actions, values, methods, measures, principles, expectations, and outcomes. In ethics, integrity is regarded as the  honesty  and  truthfulness  or  accuracy  of ones actions. Integrity can be regarded as the opposite of hypocrisy,  in that it regards internal consistency as a virtue, and suggests that parties holding apparently conflicting values should account for the discrepancy or alter their beliefs. Integrity means adherence  to  moral  and  ethical  principles;  soundness  of moral  character;  honesty. Integrity as a physical description means unimpaired and complete. Integrity in a person implies honesty, fairness, ethics, and moral character. Integrity refers to wholeness as a human being. It means that you have developed into a person whose thoughts, words, and actions are congruent, and therefore do not conflict with each other. In the exercise of your free will, your decisions reveal any de gree of disorder in your soul. To the extent that you have brought every aspect of yourself into harmony, you can be trusted to live according to your convictions. Although some contend that these convictions are completely individual and can vary widely from person to person, this would mean that even selfish or cowardly people could be said to have integrity.   Like persons companies also have integrity. Business is much related to integrity. In business integrity should be maintained. The business should be simple, moral and accountable. It should protect the interest of all stake holders. Ethics is the science of morality or the systematic study of moral rules and principles. The term morality refers to rules which prescribe the way people ought to behave and principles which reflect what is ultimately good or desirable for human beings. Ethics in business is the one that can regulate the people who are working together. This is also what determined the morale in the business or the company so that when ethical issues arise, the business will not be in chaos. This is something that will control the overall attitude of the business. It applies to all aspects of business conduct and is relevant to the conduct of individuals and entire organizations. Business ethics is a form of the art of applied ethics that examines ethical rules and principles within a commercial context, the various moral or ethical problems that can arise in a business setting and any special duties or obligations that apply to persons who are engaged in commerce. Business ethics can be both a norma tive and a descriptive discipline. As a corporate practice and a career specialisation, the field is primarily normative. In academia descriptive approaches are also taken. The range and quantity of business ethical issues reflects the degree to which business is perceived to be at odds with non-economic social values. Historically, interest in business ethics accelerated dramatically during the 1980s and 1990s, both within major corporations and within academia. For example, today most major corporate websites lay emphasis on commitment to promoting non-economic social values under a variety of headings. In some cases, corporations have redefined their core values in the light of business ethical considerations. Following ethics is the best way of doing business and serving society. Every business should have ethics. Its an important value of every business. A business should protect the interest of all its stakeholders. A business uses the resources of society. So it must have a responsibility towards the society. The importance of ethics in business can be understood by the fact that ethical businesses tend to make much more profits than the others. An organization, which is well-known for its ethical practices, creates a goodwill for itself in the market.   In simple terms, core values are set conceptions that you decide to follow in your life or in a business. They give an understanding to other entities around you about your way of thinking and living. Core values can be used in our daily lives, for living a clean and transparent life and coordinating with other people. Nowadays, core values are the most crucial aspects of any successful business, as they contribute a lot in the growth of a company. Core values are the very significant components of the identity of any business. They are specialized standards set by a company regarding the method of its functioning, decision making, problem solving, and customer service. The main aim of any company is to attract profit, which can easily be done if clients and customers are impressed by the satisfaction provided to them from the services. And for letting the clients know about the quality of the business, core values of a company essentially have to be set.  There are many advantages that core values bring. The primary benefit of core values is that they let clients and potential consumers know what the company is all about, and clarifies the identity of the company. Core values are points to be considered for maintaining proper corporate relations with the media, customers, public, and other business entities. Core values also aid companies in the decision-making processes. If a company has to take an important decision, it adheres to and considers its core values, after which it goes ahead with the appropriate decision. Core values play an important role in other entities about the goals and motives of the company. In business terms, core values are the rules, regulations, and guidelines that are to be considered for the smooth running of the business. A core value can be anything that the company is best in, such as commitment to providing maximum customer service and satisfaction.   Conclusion Todays business environment faces many problems such as exploitation of resources, fraud, unfair trade practices etc. The basic reasons behind these problems are lack of integrity, ethics and core values. Ethics, integrity and core values helps to protect the interest of all stake holders, increase the goodwill of the company, earn more profit and minimize the regulations. So ethics, integrity and core values are essential for the survival of a company. So every organisation should have these qualities. This will bring many advantages to the organisations and will help to increase the trust of society and government in the company.

Life and Death After the Invasion :: essays research papers

Returning to their New Hampshire home, Barney and Betty Hill had the worst time adjusting to the â€Å"invasion†. Barney began smoking and Betty began to hallucinating. * 3 weeks later* Barney was on the verge of getting fired from his assistant supervisor job because he constantly got high in the workplace. He also began hallucinating about small martians speaking to him and telling him that everyone in their town are secret F.B.I. Agents and are out to get him and his wife. Also, that it would be a good idea to take his wife and drive to the Grand Canyon. That is where no one would find him. Due to Betty’s â€Å"strange behavior†, her boss awarded her with another week off to relax. She planned a trip alone to Arizona. After her day shift was over, she walks over to her car and grabs the handle. Only the door is stuck. Betty tugs and tugs, but the door still wont budge. She takes a deep breath and tries for the door again. With a mighty thrust, she tugs. The door opens and Betty falls to the ground. Everything in her purse falls out. Her red lipstick rolls underneath the car. As she reaches to grab it†¦. SLAM!!! The car door shuts again. Puzzled, she opens the door and looks, but no one is in her car. She puts her key in and cranks the engine†¦ â€Å"DAMN IT!† cursed Betty. The car wont start. She looks at the gas hand to see if the tank was empty. The tank was full. She picks up her cell phone and tried to call her husband, only to be accompanied by static. â€Å"Hello?† Silence. She then begins to hear something really weird. Whispering. â€Å"Hello? Who is this? Can anybody hear me? Barney? Barney, can you hear me?†, questioned Betty. Before she could even hang up the phone, a bright light surrounding the car making it very difficult to see. She then decides to get out of the car and investigate. She reaches for the handle, but cant open the door for it seems to be stuck. Betty tries to scream, but nothing manages to come out. The light becomes so bright, that she passes out. When she comes to (10 minutes later), she tries the engine again. â€Å"Hotdog, it works!† Betty rejoices. Barney, feeling â€Å"light as a feather†, she attempts to drive home. He pulls up in his driveway, hitting the garage door.

Education Cannot Be Found in a Book :: Personal Narrative Writing

While baby-sitting my younger cousin, I noticed that she was frantically searching through a stack of books. When I questioned what she was looking for she responded frankly, "An education." I had to laugh at such a childish remark. Many individuals believe that education is simply obtained by reading books, listening to lectures or sitting in classrooms. However, education is not received by being an active listener, or an excellent reader. College does not guarantee a higher education; rather, it provides the atmosphere and tools that are required to develop into an educated, and scholarly individual. Education therefore is achieved by progressing through the different stages of knowledge, and acquiring the skills required to be an active observer and participant in the real world. Education is too often emphasized by the regurgitation of facts, which diminishes the use of critical thinking. There are too many dualistic students in society today who think topologically. That is, they believe that there are only two different answers to every question, the right one, and the wrong one. This type of thinking not only limits the quality of education that the student receives, but it also exploits the teacher's indolence and insufficient ability to bestow a higher education upon their students. Although I was ranked number four in my graduating class of 371 students, I do not feel like I have received a higher education than the student who was ranked number 371. Why? Simply because high school is equivalent of a board game, one repeats what the teacher said, one's thinking is emulative of the teachers, and one turns in the "busy work" on time. Hence, high school has educated an individual on how to be resistant to critical thinking. On the other hand, college professors attempt to make students think critically about issues, which concern their lives, and the lives of others. A good college education is not bestowed to the students by their professors; rather, the students furnish their own quality of education. A student can choose to remain resistant to critical thinking, or the student can maneuver into the next stage of education, which is thinking with multiple perspectives. In this multiple stage, the student begins to regard issues with diverse perspectives and to consider multiple answers to questions (Mitchell, 2000).

Guidelines for Writing the Three Major Parts of the Literature Review Essay

The introductory section should describe the topic (problem area, guiding concept, theme or research question or problem) that is being reviewed. Aim for an â€Å"eye catching opening sentence†. Sometimes this is a dramatic expression of a number to catch the reader’s attention such as the prevalence of a disease, crime rate, school drop out rate, or sales volume. Be sure the topic is focused on the literature that will be reported. Briefly define the key concepts. Introduce these immediately. The topic should be sufficiently focused to permit an in-depth, substantial investigation, relevant to an area of advanced study/global leadership that guides a range of inquiry, results in an extensive search of scholarly literature, and generation of questions for further inquiry. The purpose of a literature review is presented in the introduction. Bourner (1996) reports the following Purposes – of a literature review – (reasons for a review of the literature) before embarking on a research project. These reasons include: †¢ to identify gaps in the literature  Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ to avoid reinventing the wheel (at the very least this will save time and it can stop you from making the same mistakes as others) †¢ to carry on from where others have already reached (reviewing the field allows you to build on the platform of existing knowledge and ideas) †¢ to identify other people working in the same fields (a researcher network is a valuable resource) †¢ to increase your breadth of knowledge of your subject area †¢ to identify seminal works in your area †¢ to provide the intellectual context for your own work, enabling you to position your project relative to other work †¢ to identify opposing views †¢ to put your work into perspective †¢ to demonstrate that you can access previous work in an area †¢ to identify information and ideas that may be relevant to your project †¢ to identify methods that could be relevant to your project Bourner, T. (1996). The research process: Four steps to success in T. Greenfield (Ed. ), Research methods: Guidance for postgraduates (pp. 7-11). London: Arnold. Retrieved 8-13-02 from Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology RMIT University http://www. lib. rmit. edu. au/tutorials/literature/litrev. html As you attempt to define concepts (variables) and their relationships to other variables, if applicable, identify causal (independent) variables and effects (dependent variables). You may also identify other variables that can be contextual, intervening, or mediating (see Creswell, pp. 94-95 or other texts). After you introduce the topic area properly (instructions follow), you will develop a succinct one-sentence purpose of the review. Three examples of a concluding purpose statement in the overview are: Example 1: The purpose of this review is to critically analyze the theoretical and empirical literature on web-based instruction as an instructional method in distance education, with an emphasis on effectiveness studies that focus on instructional effectiveness, student learning outcomes, retention, student perceptions of this method of course delivery, and to identify areas of future scholarly inquiry. In this example, the causal variable (independent) is â€Å"instructional method of web-based instruction† and the effects (dependent variable) are instructional effectiveness, student learning outcomes, retention, and student perceptions. Example 2: The purpose of this critical analysis of theoretical and empirical literature is to (a) examine historical and current literature to evaluate whether gender workplace bias exists; (b) explore the impact such a bias would have on women in the workplace, specifically women moving up the corporate ladder; and, (c) identify any theoretical or empirical gaps in the literature for the purpose of suggesting future areas of scholarly inquiry. In this example, the causal variable (independent) is â€Å"gender bias against women in the workplace† and the effect (dependent variable) is mobility up the corporate ladder. Example 3 (Review carefully): The purpose of this critical analysis of theoretical and empirical literature is explore the influence of organizational leadership and other factors on organizational performance, in for-profit and not-for profit service organizations, and to identify areas of future scholarly inquiry. In this example, the causal variables (independent) are â€Å"organizational leadership† and â€Å"other factors†, contextual (intervening or mediating) variables are the type of organization (product versus service) and profit/non-profit, and the effect (dependent variable) is organizational performance. Please note in developing your purpose statement, that the purpose statement begins with The purpose of †¦. and concludes with a statement related to identifying future areas of scholarly inquiry. 9 Instructions: Writing An Overview and Purpose (Follow precisely) *Review Blackboard Forum 5. Use your information and faculty comments for strengthening, as a guide to develop your Overview and Purpose (see items #1-9 below). *Draft 1 is due Week 3. Review Forum 6. You will get a great start if you develop this well. 1. Using the template: a. Develop a preliminary title for the Review and include on the title page. The title should include the main concepts and themes (and/or key theories) for this review. Remember this is a critical analysis of the literature NOT a research study!!!! In no area of this paper, should you refer to this Review of Literature as a research study!!!!!! b. For the Introduction to the Literature, insert a brief subtitle preceding the colon for the level heading: ___: Overview and Purpose. 2. Under the Overview and Purpose, introduce the paper with an â€Å"eye catching† opening sentence for the first paragraph. 3. After the â€Å"eye catching† opening sentence, briefly – describe the topic (problem area, guiding concept, theme). Get to the point – don’t let the reader guess what the review is about –a few sentences. 4. Next include brief definitions of each of the major concepts and cite references for these definitions in appropriate APA format. BE BRIEF – this is not the literature but an introduction to it! Anything you present in the introduction is developed in depth in the Review of the Literature. 5. Next, very briefly, attempt to identify how the literature explains these variables and their relationships to other variables. Include as many as possible variables because this will help in constructing a literature map. The map will show relationships between the variables as you describe here. – Begin with the following: The causal variables (independent are) †¦ The effects (dependent/outcome variables are†¦ Contextual (intervening or mediating) variables that further impact the dependent or outcome variables are †¦. 6. Discuss how the topic area was identified and your reasons (point of view) for selecting the topic area to conduct your critical analysis of the literature. Review the Guidelines: How to Start – Select a Topic and Overview and Purpose, including purposes identified by Bourner (1996). Begin with the following: The topic area of ____ was selected because___. 7. Explain what you want to know about the topic. Review Hart, 1999, p. 14 (Questions the Review Can Answer). Begin with the following: Some questions to be answered through this critical analysis of the literature are:†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 8. Answer the following: Is the topic about the problems in a discipline or field of study, the processes in a discipline or field of study, or the practices in a discipline or field of study? Processes can refer to various epistemologic processes to develop knowledge (also See Hart, 1999, p. 14). Introduce this clearly so the reader knows what you are speaking about. Begin with the following: The problem area of †¦ is about†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 9. Conclude the Overview and Purpose with a clearly formulated statement of purpose of the literature review. Use the examples in the guidelines, as a guide to develop this. Make this clear (see examples in the previous lecture note). Begin with the following and include the ending The purpose of this †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.., and to identify areas of future scholarly inquiry. Organization of the Review, Scope, and Library Research Plan Organization of the Review Lecture Collect appropriate articles, read critically, identify concepts, theories, and themes, and think about the best way to present your topic. Write these concepts, theories, and themes down (see your Blackboard forum 5 submission and instructor response. Develop a Literature Map. This is a Content Map (Concept Map or Mind Map): All students will have a literature map that will guide the organization of the review and literature search. Build (draw) a visual picture of the concepts and their relationships, which results in a literature map. These evolve from your topic, key concepts, ideas, theme, and/or purpose. Don’t introduce new information or concepts. It should first be introduced in the overview. The literature map is presented in-depth here. There are many methods to organize the review, which often change as you learn more about the topic. Concept Mapping – Representing information in diagram form where key words are linked by lines. These lines are then labeled to express the relationship between the terms. The resulting ‘map’ shows links between key ideas and can then be read through to clarify relationships between key terms. a. Definition and Purpose of a Literature Map. This map is a visual/graphic representation of concepts, ideas, and themes that serve to guide thinking. In this case, the purpose is to guide the search and organizational presentation of your review. This map serves to: i. Develop ideas for your review ii. Show relationships and interrelationships between the concepts, theories, and themes – and if so, what type of relationships iii. Assist in organizing old knowledge and integrating it with new knowledge iv. Guide your literature search plan/strategy v. Identify subtitles (subheadings) to organize your literature review so that you can communicate your ideas systematically. vi. A literature/content map is a creative, intuitive, and artistic endeavor to see how things fit – to generate alternatives. It is also analytical and critical, based on what you are finding in the literature. REVIEW THESE LINKS A simplified explanation of understanding of a Content map is described in the following URL – web link – http://users.edte. utwente. nl/lanzing/cm_home. htm b. Various types of Graphic or Visual Organizers (review this online. Click each box) (you need to have the syllabus downloaded and Internet connection on) |Chain of Events |Clustering |Compare/Contrast | |Continuum |Cycle |Family Tree | |Fishbone |Interaction Outline |Problem/Solution | |Spider |Storyboard |Venn Diagram | Source: http://www. sdcoe. k12. ca. us/score/actbank/sorganiz. htm Other Web sites: Graphic or Visual Organizers Graphic or Visual Organizers: A good site review this online by clicking link. http://edservices. aea7. k12. ia. us/edtech/classroom/workshops/organizers. html http://www. cast. org/ncac/index. cfm? i=3015 http://www. veale. com. au/phd/files/Lit_Map. pdf Some diagrams of content maps are depicted in the following URL web link http://trochim. human. cornell. edu/research/epp2/epp2. htm#Table1 Free Mind Mapping Software (Smart Draw) http://www. smartdraw. com/specials/mindmapping. asp? id=13054 Readings on Mapping Ideas: See Hart, 1999, pp. 142-162 Blackboard’s Assignments Toolbar: See example of literature maps in Assignments – Weeks 1-8 Literature Review (Critical Analysis) 50%. Within this folder is information on PowerPoint Presentation and Student Examples. Most of the student examples include literature maps for RES 702 (RES600) students. Organizing the review of the literature by themes, theories, or major concepts and related concepts provides a â€Å"frame for the central topic† to organize. In this case, you may proceed inductively or deductively. http://trochim. human. cornell. edu/kb/dedind. htm Exercise in Deductive/Inductive thinking: http://www2. sjsu. edu/depts/itl/graphics/induc/ind-ded. html#3b For example, a deductive approach might start with the broader view or concept(s) then move to the specific topic area. Example FOLLOWS: A literature map (Figure 1) is used to guide the library search for theoretical and empirical literature about distance learning. The map shows a deductive pattern of the major themes, using an â€Å"interaction line style† type of graphic organizer. Beginning with the broadest concept of distance education, web-based instruction interacts with student characteristics, which leads to evaluation of effectiveness of web-based instruction in distance education. . . . Other concepts and their relationships to guide the review are . . †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Other Organizational Methodologies for Reviews: While RES 702 students are asked to develop literature maps that serve to organize the review, with more scholarly experience and depending upon the topic, you could also present the Review using an â€Å"opposing view† or â€Å"methodological approach†. This is not expected now. c. The literature map generates an outline for the Review of the Literature Review â€Å"Why do an Outline, and Basic Outlining skills: http://www. und. edu/instruct/wstevens/PROPOSALCLASS/PATRAS. html http://www. mnstate. edu/wasson/ed603/ed603lesson5. htm An outline provides a blueprint, skeleton, or a roadmap for the final written review. An outline is an organizational process that is a logical description of the important components of the literature review. It provides a visual and conceptual design for writing. 1. Identify the main points in the order they should be presented. 2. Differentiate each main heading into logical subheadings. 3. Use further subdivisions if necessary. IT IS STRONGLY SUGGESTED THAT YOU INCLUDE A SECTION ON MEASUREMENT OF YOUR MAJOR VARIABLES. REPORT SOME OF THE MAJOR METHODS, TOOLS, OR INSTRUMENTS THAT HAVE BEEN USED IN PRIOR STUDIES TO MEASURE THE KEY CONCEPTS IN YOUR OUTLINE. Notice in the outline that follows, a sub-level heading is measurement of leadership and organizational performance. In the Review of the Literature section, you would then describe the tools whether qualitative or quantitative, and reliability, validity (quantitative tools), and trustworthiness of qualitative tools. Run a Proquest or Google search such as: â€Å"measurement leadership†. This saves you time in the QP and literature in the †dissertation† where you need to know how your variables have been studied and measured. It is best to have MORE detail in these themes. You can always change later. Example of an Outline: (Let us say that the following concepts are present in the literature map which could be Chain of Events, Clustering, or Interaction Outline. This is an example of an outline (quite detailed). It includes the major concepts that can be used for the literature search, and the outline is placed in the 2nd part of this Review (Review of the Literature) to organize how to present the literature. Leadership Classical, Progressive, Risk Leadership Theories Traits and Characteristics of Leaders; Leadership, Power and Influence; Gender and Equity Issues in Leadership Practice Cultural Issues and Leadership Developing Teams Leading Organizational Change Organizational Leadership Development; Strategic Leadership Leadership Measurement Organizational Performance Dimensions of Organizational Performance Organizational Climate Individual Performance Team Performance Supplier/Vendor Perspectives Customer Satisfaction Financial Performance Effectiveness Indicators Performance Driven Organizations Competency Modeling Managing Performance 360 Degree Feedback Collaborative Change Organizational Performance Measurement: Output (Activities) and Outcome (Results) Measures Factors Influencing Organizational Performance Leadership and Performance of Organizations Leadership Style and Team Performance Leadership Style and Organizational Outcomes Leadership Style and Vendor/Supplier and Customer Satisfaction Transformational Leadership, Organizational Culture, and Organizational Effectiveness 7 Instructions for Writing the Organization of the Review Do not present literature that you reviewed here. Just respond to questions 1-7. 1. After you design the literature map, begin with the statement: A literature map (Figure 1) is used to guide the library search for theoretical and empirical literature in this review about ___. 1. Next, describe the specific type of organizer that you used to design your map (for example, cluster, chain of events, cycle, etc). To do this, you need to review this syllabus on line, and click the different URL links of examples of visual or graphic organizers (review preceding lecture which provides several types). 2. Identify the specific the concepts, theories, and themes that are in your literature map. 3. Next, briefly, describe the relationships between these concepts, theories and themes (such as what leads to what? Which are the causal, outcome and/or intervening variables? Are the concepts organized inductively or deductively? This all refers to the concepts, theories, and themes in your literature map. 4. Next explain that in addition to guiding the literature search, the literature map serves to identify themes, theories, and concepts that will organize the Literature Review. Present these theories, concepts, and themes in outline form, differentiating each main heading into logical subheadings. (Keep it simple). 5. Due for draft 1, go to the next major section (Review of the Literature) – insert these themes/concepts as level headings/sublevel headings in outline form. They serve to organize the Review of the Literature. Use appropriate APA (see p. 113 of APA) level headings. An example using APA level headings, is shown in the next major section of these guidelines. The concepts and themes for the example, uses the outline of themes previously discussed (leadership and organizational performance). 6. Insert the Figure 1, Literature Map at the end of this discussion of the Organization of the Review (before Scope and Context). a. Make sure that you develop your literature map in a software application that can be copied and pasted into your Microsoft word document containing your paper. b. Make sure the map is an appropriate size and fits within the required paper margins. c. The Figure and #, and Title (Literature Map) belong at the bottom, centered: Figure 1 Literature Map Your goal is to have the map well-developed in draft 1 and finalized in (draft 2). It is expected that this map will change as you â€Å"tighten† and â€Å"organize your literature review in the next section† as well as well as in your qualifying paper. Refine this part with each new draft (and particularly as your literature map evolves). Scope and Context Lecture This section lets the reader know what is and is not included in your literature review (scope). The topic is described in such a way that an appropriate context for the review of the literature is established, in a meaningful, logical way. The key terms here are included/excluded. You can restate the theories, concepts and constructs that you will include and obvious theories, concepts and constructs you won’t include (Look at your problem and topic area). Identify what might be included in the search in terms of types of organizations (public/private; for-profit, not for profit; service/product; types of businesses, types of educational institutions); populations such as young versus old; gender; cultural groups; countries; or type of occupation. The major types of scholarly literature to review are: empirical studies, review articles (critical analysis), theoretical articles/books, methodological articles, and case studies. These types of literature may be in the form of a book, hard copy journal articles, and electronic journal articles. The following are different types and forms of literature: Periodical Abstract in a primary source, Abstract in a secondary source, Periodical (hard copy), Periodical (electronic), Non-periodical (Book), Non-periodical (chapter in a book), Proceeding of meetings or symposia, Doctoral Dissertations (including abstracts), Unpublished work, Audio-Visuals, Newspaper, Government documents, and Electronic Media. 5 Instructions for Writing the Scope and Context 1. As you write this, discuss what is and is not included. Regarding the topic or problem area, discuss what is and is not included in terms of concepts/theories, applications to different populations and settings. 1. Identify the forms (not types) of publications that are included. You don’t need to name specific articles, but identify the forms of literature to be included. 2. Identify the discipline(s) you are focusing in (e. g. , education, health, business, criminal justice, accounting, sociology)? Included specialized areas within these disciplines, such as: gender theories in sociology, accounting ethics, special education for specified populations, urban violence, etc. 3. Identify the scope in terms of the years (period of time) that your literature review covers and exclusions. 5. Discuss whether you are limiting your review to U. S. literature, and/or Global literature. For global literature, identify the â€Å"countries†. If seminal books are emphasized, include the titles. Refine this part with each new draft (and particularly as your literature expands). Library Research Plan and Strategy Lecture THIS IS THE PLAN, NOT THE REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE!! The review is presented in the second major section (Review of the Literature) Searching the Literature: A good review of the literature is dependent upon knowledge of the use of indexes and abstracts, the ability to conduct exhaustive bibliographic searches, and ability to organize the collected data meaningfully. Information literacy skills assist with information seeking and retrieval methods and scholarly communication. Recognize scholarly and peer reviewed journals (See Week 1 Lecture). The e-Learning tutorials about Lynn Library can assist research students with the development of literature reviews using electronic databases, abstracts, bibliographic software, Internet searching, Library catalogue searching, subject resources, off-campus searching, and research and writing skills. You need to complete the tutorials. Library Research Plan/Strategy: In reporting your library plan/strategy, identify concepts, themes (key words) or descriptors and search the relevant databases for research on your topic. Be consistent with the Literature map concepts and themes. Focus your search on primary scholarly works including: empirical, theoretical, critical/analytic, or methodological inquiry. Recognize the differences between these types of scholarly inquiry. Review dissertation abstracts. Did you do a Lynn Library catalog search on the topic (at Lynn)? Did you search selected journals? Did you limit the search to peer-review journals? Did you limit the search to certain years? If you are having difficulty in your library search, you may make an appointment with the Reference Librarian who may assist in building effective search strategies. When visiting the Library, you should come prepared with your search words. Requesting Materials: It is suggested that you read the abstracts before requesting the materials from the Librarian, because certain abstracts may provide enough information to help you make a decision on the material’s relevance. Expect that you will obtain more literature than you will need to include in your literature review. Quantity, however, is not as important as selecting appropriate literature, that is of value and relevant. While many published review articles may have more than 100 cited references, due to time constraints in the course, the expectation is a minimum of 20 â€Å"relevant†, scholarly citations in the text of your paper. Do not go overboard. Quality and relevance is what counts. Don’t use references from â€Å"consulting firms† or firms that are â€Å"promoting† their products or services. Look for scholarly publications. Types and Forms of Literature: Minimum Requirements i. The preference is that you review a variety of types and forms of literature so that you many learn to: ii. Search for and evaluate different types and forms information iii. Integrate a variety of types information in the text of your paper iv. Recognize classic (seminal) works as well as current literature Give yourself time to read the material; do not make a library request for everything at once. Readings: Search Strategy worksheet: http://library. humboldt. edu/infoservices/sstrawrksht. htm http://www. noodletools. com/debbie/literacies/information/5locate/adviceengine. html http://www. lynn. edu/clientuploads/Library/Graduatestudentsmanual. doc 11 Instructions for Writing the Library Research Plan and Strategy In a Review, a discussion of the plan or strategy you used to develop your literature search is presented. Don’t discuss what you â€Å"will† do, but rather â€Å"what you did†. 1. Identify the descriptors (concepts, themes, theories, phrases/key words) used to search the relevant databases for research on your topic. Include â€Å"themes† or groups of words used in the search plan. Add the terms â€Å"theory† or â€Å"research† to your themes when you are searching. You should uses many â€Å"themes† to limit the search. Example of a theme for a library search: â€Å"leadership organizational performance research†. Try to include several themes. 2. Report databases used in your library search. 3. Indicate which of the following types of primary scholarly works were reviewed: empirical, theoretical, critical/analytic, or methodological inquiry (aim to obtain all of these)? 4. Were secondary citations of references used in your paper? Explain Why? Review APA p. 247 to understand a secondary citation of a source. Remember that these need to be limited. In your dissertation, you need to mostly use primary sources of literature. Remember that if you report literature from secondary sources in your paper use (as cited in __). 5. Explain if you reviewed dissertation abstracts (yes/no). If so, on what topics, which abstracts? You should use these. 6. Explain if you did a Library catalog search on the topic (at Lynn or where? ) Yes/ or no 7. Provide the titles of the key journals reviewed. (Put these titles in Italics). 8. Indicated whether or not you limited the search to peer-reviewed journals? 9. Indicate if you limited the search to certain years? If so, which years? 10. Refer the reader to the example of a library Search Print-out that you will place in Appendix A. 11. Report any problems encountered in your library search and how these problems were managed. Refine this part with each new draft. Interest, Significance, and Rationale for the Critical Analysis Lecture In this last part of the introduction to the literature review, you explain the importance and significance of the Review that will follow. As you read more, you will find more rationale as to why this review is important. Provide a transition sentence from this Introduction to the Review of the Literature. Then end with a statement that explains how the Review will conclude in the Discussion section. Example of concluding statement: As an emerging method of instructional delivery in higher education, and one that continually evolves with the growth in technology, it is important to understand its impact on learning, retention, instruction, and students. This critical analysis of the literature concludes with a summary and interpretation of theoretical, empirical, and methodological literature, conclusions, and recommendations for future scholarly inquiry into web-based instruction in distance education. 4 Instructions for Writing the Interest, Significance, and Rationale for the Critical Analysis 1. Discuss if the topic is of limited interest, regional, national, or perhaps of global interest? Explain why? You can include personal interest based on experience and potential applications. 2. Describe why it is worth studying (or examining)? 3. Indicate that the presentation of the Review of the Literature follows 4. Develop a concluding statement (see example above, in lecture) to the effect that a synopsis and interpretations, conclusions, and recommendations are presented at the end of the review in the discussion section. Refine this part with each new draft. Review of the Literature About ___ (add your topic) Lecture This is the second major part of this critical analysis. This has a long lecture. Now is the time to write â€Å"your in-depth Literature Review†. You laid the foundations for this section in the Introduction to the Review, to organize your review according to those themes. Present the theoretical literature (theories, model, constructs, concepts) about those themes, and empirical literature (studies) regarding those themes, in a proper manner. Follow the instructions (see presenting theoretical literature, and presenting empirical literature) in this Review of the Literature section. If you present the literature appropriately in this body of the review, then you will have information to present in the Discussion of the Literature. If you don’t, this Review falls apart. Only literature presented in this Review of the Literature can be analyzed in the next section, Discussion of the Literature. You will save a stitch in time, if you follow instructions and learn how to present theories, and how to present studies, including the authors stated limitations and recommendations for future inquiry, in addition to your critique of those studies. †¢ General comments: The theoretical and empirical literature is summarized, analyzed, evaluated, and synthesized in a more in-depth â€Å"coherent† manner within organized headings and sublevel headings. Specifically, information pertaining to theoretical, empirical, methodological, critical review, and case studies about the topic is reported. As reported previously, expect that you will obtain more literature than you will need to include in your literature review. Quantity, however, is not as important as selecting appropriate literature to present, that is of value and relevant. While many published Review articles may have more than 100 cited references, due to time constraints in the course, the expectation is a minimum of 20 â€Å"relevant†, scholarly citations in the text of your paper. This will increase to 50 references in the qualifying paper. It certainly isn’t unusual to have over 100 references in a dissertation. Do not go overboard. Quality and relevance is what counts. Don’t use references from â€Å"consulting firms† or firms that are â€Å"promoting† their products or services. Look for scholarly publications. As you present literature in your â€Å"word† document, it is okay to talk to yourself. Make notes in the document to your self. You can use different font colors or highlights for these messages to yourself. o Perhaps you want to leave a message to yourself to review a particular article that you didn’t yet have the chance to review, or o you want to search another theme. o Or you read an article, but didn’t have a chance yet to write about it – jot down notes o Use the word file as a tool where you keep all information in one place. You will find this technique very helpful in developing the qualifying paper, and in developing the your dissertation. The instructor does not mind (and in fact encourages you do to this, even in final copies0. Just make the messages â€Å"neat† – and not to distracting) Of utmost importance, is that you present your review appropriately. Practice doing it correctly immediately or you will be WASTING time (having to redo it later). †¢ Your review must be organized within the headings/sublevel headings. Insert the outline developed in the Introduction to the Review. Make sure that the outline is consistent with the organization of themes, concepts add theories in your literature map. †¢ It is ok if you reorganize or rename the themes, but make the changes if the Organization of the R (and literature map, in the prior section). You want the Introduction to the Review, Review of the Literature, and the Discussion section all to be â€Å"internally consistent† with one another. †¢ Instructions follow on how to present CRITICALLY present, theoretical and empirical literature. FOLLOW THESE INSTRUCTIONS. Quotations and Paraphrasing and Critical Analysis †¢ This is a literature review, and not your opinion.

Math Self-efficacy

Math Self-efficacy 1 Running head: SELF-EFFICACY AND STANDARDIZED TEST PERFORMANCE Accepted for publication in the Journal of Educational Psychology. This version may slightly differ from the published version. Does Math Self-efficacy Mediate the Effect of the Perceived Classroom Environment on Standardized Math Test Performance? Lisa A. Fast University of California, Riverside James Lewis University of California, Riverside Michael J. Bryant California Institute of the Arts Kathleen A. Bocian University of California, Riverside Richard A.Cardullo University of California, Riverside Michael Rettig University of California, Riverside Kimberly A. Hammond University of California, Riverside Math Self-efficacy 2 Abstract We examined the effect of the perceived classroom environment on math self-efficacy and the effect of math self-efficacy on standardized math test performance. Upper elementary school students (n = 1163) provided self-reports of their perceived math selfefficacy and the degree to which their math classroom environment was masteryoriented, challenging, and caring. Individual student scores on the California Standards Test for Mathematics were also collected.A series of two-level models revealed that students who perceived their classroom environments as more caring, challenging, and mastery-oriented had significantly higher levels of math efficacy, and higher levels of math efficacy positively predicted math performance. Analysis of the indirect effects of classroom variables on math performance indicated a small significant mediating effect of self-efficacy. Implications for research on self-efficacy and the perceived classroom environment are discussed. Math Self-efficacy 3 Does Math Self-efficacy Mediate the Effect of the Perceived Classroom Environment on Standardized Math Test Performance?In the current high-stakes testing environment, any attribute of a student that positively influences achievement is of interest. The degree to which a studen t believes that he/she is capable of performing specific tasks, referred to as self-efficacy, is particularly relevant given that self-efficacy has been argued to have powerful effects on achievement behavior (Bandura, 1986). Those with higher self-efficacy are proposed to have higher aspirations, stronger commitments to their goals, and recover more quickly from setbacks than those lower in self-efficacy. Beliefs in one’s efficacy can vary across academic subjects (e. . reading vs. writing) and self-efficacy for mathematics has received close attention. Students with higher math self-efficacy persist longer on difficult math problems and are more accurate in math computations than those lower in math self-efficacy (Collins, 1982; Hoffman & Schraw, 2009). Math self-efficacy is also a stronger predictor of math performance than either math anxiety or previous math experience (Pajares & Miller, 1994; Pajares & Miller, 1995, respectively) and influences math performance as stron gly as overall mental ability (Pajares & Kranzler, 1995).The demonstrated importance of self-efficacy in academic achievement has provoked widespread interest in specific factors that affect a student’s self-efficacy beliefs. Bandura’s (1997) social-cognitive theory proposed that self-efficacy is most strongly affected by one’s previous performance and research largely supports this (Chen & Zimmerman, 2007). His theory also suggests that self-efficacy is affected by observing others (e. g. watching peers succeed at a task), verbal persuasion (e. g. encouragement from parents and teachers), and interpretation of physiological states (e. g.Math Self-efficacy 4 lack of anxiety may be a signal that one possesses skills). Although several studies indicate that manipulating features of learning environments along these theoretical premises has immediate and detectable effects on self-efficacy (Schunk, 1982, 1983, 1984; Schunk & Hanson, 1985), it seems possible that st udents’ perceptions of their learning environments also affect their efficacy beliefs. Ames (1992) argued that learning environments may not provide a common experience for all students and that students’ subjective interpretations of their environment determine how they respond to it.For example, a teacher might be described by an objective observer as helpful, but if a student perceives him/her as unhelpful, then the perception of unhelpfulness will guide the students’ behavior more than the teachers’ actual helpfulness. Focusing on perceptions of the classroom environment is consistent with Bandura’s (1997) theory, which suggests that self-efficacy is influenced by how an individual interprets relevant information. For example, a student might interpret a perceived unhelpful teacher as evidence that he/she lacks ability.In the current study, we focus on three aspects of the perceived classroom environment that affect self-efficacy: Mastery-orien tation, Challenge, and Caring. The degree to which students perceive their classroom environment as one that encourages mastery versus performance goals has been prominently studied (Ames, 1992; Dweck, 1986; Maehr & Nicholls, 1980, respectively). Classrooms structured around mastery goals emphasize effort and the intrinsic value of learning; students who adopt mastery goals are more likely to believe that effort leads to success (Weiner, 1979) and display positive attitudes towards learning (Ames & Archer, 1988).In contrast, classrooms structured around performance goals emphasize ability and competition Math Self-efficacy 5 between peers; students who adopt performance goals are more likely to use shallow learning strategies (Meece et al. , 1988) and avoid challenging tasks (Dweck, 1986). Although both of these classroom goal structures theoretically influence the achievement goals that students adopt, only mastery goal structures are consistently related to selfefficacy.Several st udies have found that students who perceive their classroom environment as more mastery oriented have higher academic self-efficacy (Dorman, 2001; Friedel et al. , 2007; Middleton & Midgley, 1997), whereas performance oriented classrooms have been found to be unrelated, positively related, and negatively related to self-efficacy (Friedel et al. , 2007; Wolters et al. , 1996; Schunk, 1996, respectively). Studies using path analysis have also found that self-efficacy mediates the influence of mastery-oriented classrooms on performance (Bong, 2008; Greene, Miller, Crowson, Duke, & Akey, 2004).In particular, Wolters (2004) found that mastery goal structure had a significant positive effect on students’ math grades, but when math self-efficacy was included in the model, the effect of mastery structure on course grades became nonsignificant. The degree to which a classroom environment is perceived as challenging also influences self-efficacy. A challenging environment is one in whi ch students are provided with progressively difficult tasks as their proficiency increases. Vygotsky (1978) argued that challenge is essential for intellectual development and Grolnick et al. 2002) proposed that individuals are born with a need to test their abilities and master their environment. Accordingly, evidence indicates that students enjoy learning when tasks are challenging (Zahorik, 1996). Although challenge has been most prominently discussed as an important facilitator of intrinsic motivation (e. g. Malone & Lepper, Math Self-efficacy 6 1987), some researchers suggest that it also leads to stronger beliefs in one’s academic abilities (Meyer, Turner, & Spencer, 1997; Stipek, 2001).Participating in challenging activities allows students to notice their incremental improvement in a subject, which increases feelings of self-competence. In support of this, Gentry and Owen (2004) reported that middle and high school students who perceived their classroom as challenging were more likely to have higher academic self-efficacy. Similarly, Meyer, Turner, & Spencer (1997) found that fifth and sixth-grade students who were characterized as â€Å"challenge-seekers† had higher math self-efficacy, while students who were characterized as â€Å"challenge-avoiders’ had lower math self-efficacy.Finally, the degree to which students perceive their classroom as a caring environment also has an important influence on self-efficacy. In a caring classroom (also referred to as Teacher Involvement: Newman, 2002; Personalization: Frasier & Fisher, 1982), the teacher expresses personal interest in students, provides emotional support, and generally creates a comfortable atmosphere. Murdock and Miller (2003) suggest that students who perceive their teachers as caring are more likely to view themselves as academically capable and set higher educational goals for themselves.Positive relationships between students and teachers provide a critical development al resource for children; students are more likely to seek help when they need it and develop a wide range of competencies when they feel emotionally supported by their teachers (Crosnoe, Johnson, & Elder, 2004; Pianta, Hamre, & Stuhlman, 2003). Accordingly, evidence suggests that students who perceive their teachers as more caring have significantly higher academic self-efficacy (Murdock & Miller, 200; Patrick et al. , 2007). Pianta et al. (2008) also found that fifth-grade students had higher performance on math tests whenMath Self-efficacy 7 their classrooms were rated higher in emotional support. In addition, the effect of emotional support on math achievement was larger than the effect of quantity of math instruction. The authors noted that, â€Å"this is especially interesting because math is perhaps not a subject where teacher-student relations are as much a focus,† (Pianta et al. , 2008, p. 389). In summary, math self-efficacy appears to play an important role in math achievement and mediates the influence of mastery-oriented classroom environments on math achievement.Global academic self-efficacy also seems to be positively affected by caring and challenging classroom environments. However, several issues remain unclear. Little is known either about the influence of caring and challenging classroom environments specifically on math self-efficacy or whether math self-efficacy mediates the influence of challenging and caring classroom environments on math achievement. Further, virtually nothing is known about the relationships between math self-efficacy, perceived classroom environment, and achievement in the context of standardized math test performance.These are important gaps in the literature in light of the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2002 that requires all students to take standardized math tests annually in grades 3 through 8 and once during high school. Scores on these tests are increasingly being used for â€Å"high-stakes† purposes that affect both students and teachers. According to the National Center for Fair and Open Testing (2007), standardized test scores of fourth, fifth, and sixth graders can be used for the following purposes in California: to place students into instructional groups (e. . remedial or special education programs), determine school eligibility for federal funding, make decisions about whether principals, Math Self-efficacy 8 teachers, and staff are offered continued employment, and determine whether or not teachers get bonuses. Several researchers have argued that the implementation of NCLB has led to a focus on testing and evaluation that permeates the school environment (Meece, Anderman, & Anderman, 2006; Ryan et al. , 2007). It is important to examine how student motivation (e. g. elf-efficacy) and classroom environments are related to one another in this legislated performance-oriented environment. In the current study, we predicted that math self-efficacy mediates the inf luence the perceived of classroom environment on standardized math test performance (Figure 1). Specifically, we predict that students’ perceptions of the degree to which their classroom environment is mastery-oriented, challenging, and caring has a direct and positive influence on math self-efficacy, and math self-efficacy has a direct and positive effect on student performance on standardized math tests.Each of these three aspects of the classroom environment will positively affect self-efficacy for the following reasons. Mastery-orientation will have a positive influence on math self-efficacy because environments that encourage students to take pride in their effort and value learning for its own sake, rather than simply emphasize the importance of good grades, will allow students to feel more confident in their ability.Challenge will also be associated with higher math self-efficacy because being afforded the opportunity to progressively master tasks that are slightly bey ond one’s current capacity allows a student to observe his/her own progress and gradually increase beliefs in his/her ability. Finally, caring will have a positive influence on math self-efficacy because Bandura (1993) argued that affective processes affect self-efficacy. In particular, environments that arouse anxiety and other negative emotions have a negative affect on efficacy beliefs (Usher, 2009).We Math Self-efficacy 9 hypothesize that environments in which teachers take a personal interest in and emotionally support students are less likely to arouse negative emotions than environments in which teachers are impersonal and emotionally disconnected, and therefore caring environments will positively affect self-efficacy. Methods Participants The 1,163 participants in our study were fourth, fifth, and sixth graders who attended elementary school in an inland southern California suburban school district during the 2005-06 and 2006-07 academic years.The schools were located in low to middle income neighborhoods, with 59% (n = 682) of our participants receiving free and/or reduced lunch. Participants came from 88 separate classrooms. The mean cluster size was 13. 22 (SD = 5. 95) and ranged from 2 to 25 students per classroom. The majority of our sample consisted of Latino/a (62%) and Caucasian (31%) students and other ethnic groups included African American (4%), Asian (1%), Pacific Islander (